Ethics and Information Technology Volkswagen Company †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Ethics and Information Technology. Answer: In the recent times there have been a great development in the field of technology. In addition to this the field of information technology is not new to the evolution in the business and ideas. Although with the rise of the technologies there has been development of some ethical issues with the said technologies. Now, the ethics are very important in all the aspects of life and the field of information technology is not new to this. There are some ethical guidelines that every person or organization should be following. There are the classical ethical theories that are to be followed. The case that is provided in this report is the case of the Volkswagen Company and the unethical issues that came up due to the adoption of certain policies by the company. The Volkswagen Company was looking to incorporate the Amazon Alexs AI into their cars. The AI would be bringing the virtual assistance to the users. The Volkswagen Company earlier had already established the Car-net functions into their cars. This time the company is looking to incorporate the Alexa Ai with this technology. The car net function allows the users to connect to their cars using their smartphones and helps the users to communicate with their cars very efficiently. The drivers would be able to add destinations for the car and also add the directions to the navigation systems of the cars. The integration would be providing useful details of the users to the AI and this raises the main issue of the report. The main ethical issue is that the privacy of the user is violated by this incorporation of the AI with the car net functions that are already pre-installed in the car. The ethical issues that had arisen due to the cheating procedures applied by the company had also violated the classical ethical theories. The theory of Utilitarianism is concerned with the maximum utilization of the resource by the maximum people. The Ai that is implemented in the cars do not provide privacy to the users. Hence, they violated the Utilitarian Theory of classical ethics. In addition to this, the deontology theory was also violated by the company. The deontology theory deals with the duty towards all human beings (Chiu et al., 2014). The company is unable to provide proper security to the user data and hence they are violating the deontology theory. In addition to this there is the virtue ethics in the classical ethical theory (Paquette et al., 2015). It is believed according to the virtue ethics that if a person is morally correct he would not be conducting any kind of unethical behavior in his professional life or at the workplace. But the Ai that would be introduced by the company do not possess any kind of moral values and hence the virtue ethics was also violated (Hursthouse, 2013). In addition to this, there is the Contact theory and it deals with the justification of the events that occur. But the situation that is at is not at all justified and hence the contact theory is also violated (Magelssen et al., 2016). The ethical issues can be solved by implementing some methods to the policies that are implemented by the car company. Firstly the company should look to incorporate some security measures into the algorithm that is incorporated within the car. In addition to this the company should ensure that the information about the uses is not leaked out. In addition to this, the users should also be aware of the circumstances before engaging themselves with this new technology. For conclusion it can be said that the report has been used here to display the different types of ethical issues that are being raised in the field of information technology. In his report the details of the case of the Volkswagen Company integrating AI into their cars have been provided. In addition to this the classical ethical theories have also been discussed and it is also been shown that how the issue violates the ethical theories. References Chiu, C. M., Wang, E. T., Fang, Y. H., Huang, H. Y. (2014). Understanding customers' repeat purchase intentions in B2C e?commerce: the roles of utilitarian value, hedonic value and perceived risk.Information Systems Journal,24(1), 85-114. Etzioni, A., Etzioni, O. (2016). AI assisted ethics.Ethics and Information Technology,18(2), 149-156. Hursthouse, R. (2013). Normative virtue ethics.ETHICA,645. Magelssen, M., Gjerberg, E., Lillemoen, L., Frde, R., Pedersen, R. (2016). Ethics support in community care makes a difference for practice.Nursing Ethics, 0969733016667774. Paquette, M., Sommerfeldt, E. J., Kent, M. L. (2015). Do the ends justify the means? Dialogue, development communication, and deontological ethics.Public Relations Review,41(1), 30-39. Pendyala, R. M., Bhat, C. R. (2014). Activity-Travel Behavior Impacts of Driverless Cars. In93rd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board.

Influence of Pta on School Adminsitration free essay sample

The school organization, administration and management has become sophisticated and complex to the extent that governments alone cannot handle, problems ranging from students unrest, poor attendance to schools and drop out especially among female students could be solved with the assistance of the (home) parent Teachers’ Association. Public schools require effective community support, hence the need to establish a well organized Parent-Teacher’s Association in our primary schools cannot be over emphasized. School Advisory Boards were established in schools to assist in solving issues related to the administration and management of education. However, it was observed that School Advisory Boards were not effective since they were regarded as a mere consultative body on certain disciplinary cases. Another reason could be that, there was no much interaction between the schools and Advisory Boards. Communities are supposed to play important role in influencing the school since they regard each other as partners. However, schools have been holding the community performance in the school with suspicion as observed by Musaazi (1984:242) that parents consider the job of teachers as merely instruction in the classroom not organizing productive activities in the village or doing other community development, type of activities. Teachers do sometimes reject the idea of having local villagers (parents) to participate in managing the schools. This kind of feeling among the teachers has therefore made parents to regard the school only as a modern creation exclusively meant for only those with Western Education and hence the ordinary parents with no such type of education were therefore not expected to participate in its activities. Government seemed incapable to shoulder the entire educational burden alone, the government therefore need to involve parents and Parent Teacher Association actively in the management of primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory. Parent-Teacher Association has a very long history in Federal capital Territory. The association developed from within the parents themselves in their attempt to be involved in the management and administration of schools in the Federal Capital Territory it was observed that the activity of the association has been characterized with mere fund raising at the expense of other important roles. The role of Parent-Teacher Associations ought to extend beyond mere financial contributions to include policy making in primary schools management most especially in areas, such as curriculum change and other educational development. The intent of this research is to explore in to the problem that surrounds the role of parent teacher association the management of schools in Federal Capital Territory. 1. 2Statement of the Problem There are insinuations from certain quarters that the PTAs interfere negatively with the administration of schools. Many private schools for instance will rather operate without a PTA to check the perceived undue interferences of parents. However, it is thought by some that PTAs play a rather significant role in the running of schools. The study therefore will examine the financial contributions to schools by Parent-Teacher Association, parents’ involvement in the students’ academic activities as well as parents’ involvement in the social activities of the schools in order to understand the contributions of PTA to the development of primary education in the country. The study intends to investigate the extent to which the roles of Parent-Teacher Associations are being achieved in development of primary schools in Federal Capital Territory. 1. 3 Purpose of the Study The aim of the study was to investigate the extent to which the roles of parent-teacher association in the management and development of primary education in Gwagwalada Area Council with a view of suggesting ways to improve to allow general effectiveness and efficiency of the educational system. The specific purposes for this study include: 1. To observe the roles performed by Parent-Teacher Associations in the management of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council. 2. To identify the contributions of Parent-Teacher Association to the smooth running of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council. . To study the reactions of parents towards parent-teacher association with regard to the activities of the association in relation to the management of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council. 4. To study the impact of PTA on the development of Primary Schools in Gwagwalada Area Council. 1. 4Research Questions The research attempts to answer the following research questions: 1. What rol es does Parent-Teacher Associations perform in the management of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council? 2. What contributions does Parent-Teacher Association make to the smooth running of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council? 3. What are the reactions of parents towards parent-teacher association with regard to the activities of the association in relation to the management of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council? 4. What impact does PTA make to the development of Primary Schools in Gwagwalada Area Council? 1. 5 Basic Assumptions The study is based on the following assumptions 1. That the existence of Parents Teachers Associations aids the development of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council. . That Parent-Teacher Association functions are not identified in relationship with the development of the secondary education primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council. 3. Parents have adequate perception of their role in the activity of parent teacher associations. 4. Parent Teacher Associations members may not be aware of other more important functions of the associations. 1. 6Si gnificance of the Study The government cannot bear the entire burden in managing the financial responsibilities of all post primary institutions in the Gwagwalada Area Council. In view of the above, there seemed to be no better forum where both parents and teachers could meet and make a worth while contribution in sharing with the government part of the educational responsibility other, than through the Parent Teacher Associations. The research was intended to make parents become more responsive and conversant about their role in the activity of parent Teacher Association. Equally, principals and Teachers would be more knowledgeable about their role in parent Teacher’s Association activities. Furthermore, the study would serve as basis for studies on the role of parent-teacher association in relation to the development of primary school education in Gwagwalada Area Council for so many reasons: On the whole, for the justification of the position taken by the parent teacher association the research work is therefore of great significance to find out what specific. Finally, the research findings are to be used as a pointer to the ministry of education to initiate a move towards involving parent teacher association in policy making rather than reducing them to mere fund raising organization. . 7 Scope of the Study The area to be covered by this research work is the Gwagwalada Area Council of the FCT in Nigeria. The study is specifically delineated to primary school in the area council as a result of time constraints as well as financial constraints. Introduction In this chapter, the relevant literatures are discussed in the following sub-headings: (a)Theoretical/Conceptual Framework of the study. (b)Purpose and relevance of Parent-Teachers’ Association. (c)Organization and composition of Parent-Teacher Association. d)Parent- Teacher Association and school administration. (e)School community relationship. (f)Review of some parent –Teachers’ Association constitutions. 2. 2Theoretical/Conceptual Framework This section is an attempt towards exploring the theoretical framework with the view of giving the entire work a kind of the theoretical basis. The following areas were examined: a. Organizational theory. b. Leadership and organization. c. Goals in organization d. Communication and school management. e. Delegation of authority. 2. 2. 1 Organisational Theory According to Persons (1990:17) organizations â€Å"are social units (of human groupings) deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals. † Modern societies have so many organisations that are establish to accomplish specific goals for social development. Among such organization is the parent-Teachers’ Association whose characteristics, goals and objectives follow very well in parson’s definition of organization. A prominent organizational theorist, Webver (1961) as cited by Etsioni (2001) distinguished three modes of theories which an organizational structure may adopt: traditional charismatic and authority. It was observed that Weber emphasized on the rational aspects. Barnard as cited by Etzioni (2001) while examining similar set of complex organizations, placed greater emphasis on the psychological and social aspects in the case of main focus, of this review, both Weber’s structure can be observed. Selznick’s theory as cited by Etzioni (2001) rests on Weber’s and Barnards foundations. He studied organizations not only as economics and adaptive structures, but also as the co-operative systems. This led him to examine the formal roles of the participants as well as their personality and leadership. Selznick’s theory is more closely related to this area of investigation; the role of parent-Teachers’ Associations in the development of secondary schools in Federal Capital Territory. The role of the participants (parents and Teachers) and their personality and leadership in the discharge of their various roles are clearly identifiable. Parson’s contribution in organizational theory is predominantly oriented to the attainment of specific goals. This, when related to parent-teacher associations could mean closing the gap between the home and the school with the view of promoting education welfare of the child. Specifically, parent-teacher association is geared towards improving teaching, learning and welfare of the students. The above theoretical constructs of organizational theory when looked from a different perspective can be summarized as consisting of elements of classical theory of management, human relations and the structuralists thinking in administration. Area of Study The Federal Republic of Nigeria become worthy of consideration by the Governemt of the late General Murtala Mohammed for a new Capital. Many Nigerians observed that Lagos was be set by Intractable problems and as such unbefitting of a Federal capital City. The Federal Government therefore on August 9th 1975 announced a seven (7) man committee headed by renowned Jurist, Dr. Timoty Akinola Aguda with Dr. Tai Solarin, Colonel Monsignol-Petrik Nartubs; Prof. C. K. Ogan, Alhaji Mohammed Musa Isma, Dr. Ajato Gandanu and Chief Owen Fiebai as members to advise the government on where to site its capital in stand of Lagos. This committee has Chief E. E. Nsefic as its secretary. On February 5th 1979, Federal Capital Territory was born by Decree number 6 of 1976. The decree was promulgated to give a legal state to the new capital territory. The ownership control and governance of the territory was vested in the Government. The Decree also established a Federal Capital development Authority (F. C. D. A) with the responsibility to plan, design and develop the territory including the sitting, management and the deployment of education in the territory. The Federal Capital Territory (F. C. T. ) is located within the centre of the geographical are called Nigeria, it shares boundary with Kaduna State to the North, Nassarawa State to the East and South East, Kogi State to the West and equidistant from almost all parts of the country. It is inhabited by Egbura, Gwari, Nupe, Hausa and son on. The land scope of the territory consists of titled alluvial plains dissected by Rivers Guran and Usuma and a range of hills, and extension of the Jos Plateau popularly known as Jema’a plate from running through to the middle of the territory. The vegetation is predominantly Guinea savannah, the soil is reddish and its temperature fluctuation between 30o and 37o centigrade. Like some other parts of Nigeria, Abuja is basically affected by the dry and rainy session the dry session is between December and Mrch and rainy session is about April to Novermber. Rain fall average 1,632mm annually. The Federal Captial Territory is presently made up of six area councils: Abaji, Gwagwalada, Kwali, Kuje, Abuja Municipal and Bwari, each with average 4 – 5 secondary schools with Gwagwalada having the only school for the gifted students. 2. 3 Leadership and Organisation The success of any organization depends mainly on effective administration procedures (Musaazi: 1982). However, such effective leadership, organization, such as educational institutions require dynamic leadership. According to Stodgill (1958: 38) leadership is organized group in the task of goal setting and goal achievement†. Leaders wherever they are, availed themselves with one-type of leadership style or the other. Parent-Teacher Associations as an organization is being steered under the leadership of dynamic chairmen who are seasonal administrators in their respective areas of endeavours. Since Parent-Teacher Association s is a voluntary organization, a leadership style befitting its status and aspirations of the majority must be thought. However, it must be understood that such a leadership style must relegate concretely to the goals of the association. 2. 4 Goals in Organisation Organizations are generally established to achieve certain tasks (goals). The success of organizations is invariable measured in relation to accomplishing organizational goals. Goals of organizations serve many functions. They provide direction and guide-lines for organisationl activity. Organizations are social units which pursue specific goals (Etzioni 2001:5). According to Etzioni (2001) organizational goals is â€Å"a desired state of affairs which the organization attempt’s to realize†. Organizations are constructed to be the most effective and efficient social units (Etzoni 2001:8). The actual effectiveness of a particular organization is determined by the degree to which it achieved its goals. The efficiency of an organization is measured by the amount of the resources used to produce a single unit of output. Parent-Teacher Associations as an organization is specifically aimed towards serving as a clearing house for the presentation and discussion of educational problems where parents and teachers through contact could develop greater understating for the effective solutions to our educational problems (Moehlman, 1997). The effectiveness of any parent-teachers ‘association in the Federal Capital Territory’ would be measured in relation to solving the numerous educational problems facing our secondary schools. . 5 Communication and School Management Communication is an art used all the time. It is the exchange of information, feelings and attitudes. Communication involves sharing of ideas and information in related to parent-teacher ‘Associations as it comprised of many people showing a common interest (the advancement of education and students welfare). Afolyan (1982) described communication as the life blood of any organization. According to Simon (1998: 152). Communication is inseparable with organization to influence the behaviour of the individuals for there can be no organization without communication. There are various types of communication used by school principals. These are summarized in to two broad classes. There are channels of communication with members of the school and also a channel of communication with community members. School principles should inform parents on the activities of their schools and to share a common idea with them. However, the medium of communication and mode of contacting members to attend meetings could constitute a serious problem to the effectiveness of the association. 2. 6 Delegation of Authority Authority is an important aspect necessary for achieving the set of objectives in any organization. Authority is being seen as the power to make decisions which guide the actions of another (Musaazi 1982: 100). Delegation is simply the process of dividing up the superior’s (boss) total work and giving part of it to the subordinate to perform on 106). As educational organizations grow in size, they become more sophisticaticated and complex, delegation of authority and responsibility becomes increasingly essential. By law, school administers have been delegated to carry out certain functions of the ministry in their respective schools. Principals therefore find themselves in a kind of dual relationship. They exercise authority and also subject school’s board of governors. Authority is not usually measured by positions in the Associations. The constituted views of the association are not adhered to due to selfish interests of some highly placed individuals. In view of the numerous tasks to be performed by the state ministry of Education on one hand, and the desire of voluntary organizations like the parent Teacher Associations to assist in the management of post primary institutions, some element of delegation of authority is identifiable. It is the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Education to collect any dues from students. The Ministry has delegated school principals to collect such money on behalf of the ministry. It is also the duty of the ministry to feed the large students in the boarding institutions. In conclusion, a theory could be described as a set of assumptions from which a set of empirical law may be derived. They are developed, essentially to assist in the identification and clarification of problems now and in the future (Etzioni, 2001). Parent-Teachers Association as an organization must strive to identify and clarify the educational problem facing post primary institutions in the Federal Capital Territory. As an additional impetus, members of the association must elect leaders of impeccable character and transparent honesty. 2. 7 Purpose and Relevance of Parent-Teachers Association According to Collins (1973:87) Parent-Teacher Association is â€Å"an organization or combination of parents and Teachers meant to cultivate and facilitate mutual understanding so as to make the education of children a joint operation as well as understanding social and fund raising activities† some of the main objectives of Parent-Teacher Associations in secondary schools in the Federal Capital Territory would include strengthening the uthority of the school in caring out disciplinary problems, financial contributions, social activity and exchange of useful ideas between the teachers and the parents. It is important to involve parents and teachers in policy making concerning education in the Federal Capital Territory so as to make education of the child a joint responsibility between the home and the school. Parent-Teachers’ Association was described as a mechanism in the advancement of education. He therefore called on the parents to be part of that driving droce which is devoted to education. Parents group that does not think for itself is not one of great strength. Neither is it in the long run one that contributes significantly to Education. Hence, groups that are motivated by common purpose can gain much through the utilization of the capacity found in them. Submissive power structure is not one that will grapple effective with large issues (Morphet 1981: 221). In a similar related vein Dada (1971: 175) saw Parent-Teachers’ Associations as â€Å"important and effective in fostering parents education, child welfare, further school improvement, home and community cooperation and interpreting school to public in general†. This to the researcher is related to the study especially in its contribution towards enlightenment of the public. For any association to fulfill such a task, it must be made part of the policy and decision making body more than what obtains now on the same note, Stearns as cited in Grant (1993) noted that: â€Å"involvement of the parents in the formal education of their children is good for the children, good for the school and good for the community. † However, Stearns failed to elaborate to what extent it would be good to the beneficiaries. One would have expected a more detailed and comprehensive analysis on the possible effect of Parent Teacher Associations involvement in Education. Despite its inadequacy, yet, it would assist in strengthening the parent-Teacher’s Associations which would pave way to create and solidify a sound school community relationship. As contained in the Bye laws of the United States National Congress of parents, the objectives for setting up a Parent-Teacher Association are as follows: a. To promote the welfare of children and youth in the home, church and community; b. To raise the standards of home life; c. To secure adequate laws for the care and protection of children and youth; d. To bring into closer relation the home and the school that parents and teachers may co-operate intelligently in the training of the child. e. To develop between educators and the general public such united efforts as well as to secure advantages in physical, mental, social and spiritual education. The primary and secondary purpose of organizing Parent-Teacher Associations according to Moechlman (1997) agreed with the above objectives. The primary function is that of serving as a clearing house for the presentation and discussion of educational problems in order and contact develop greater understanding of the individual child and better cooperation for the effective solution of educational problems. The secondary function of Parent-Teacher Associations should be given a more articulated role in the management of schools in the Federal Capital Territory in order to achieve those laudable objectives since they do not in any way differ from those upheld by the country way differ from those upheld by the control and Federal Capital Territory in particular so as to enhance parents contribution (moral and otherwise) to supplement government efforts towards improvement of education of their children. Nigeria’s present education system accorded high priority to self reliance and communal participation in the development of their environment just like many other developing countries. Modern educators have unequivocally reiterated the desired need for teachers to have a forum with the parents of the pupils they teach for a common understanding. Woodbury (1979) said that â€Å"it appears vital that professional educators and boards of education acquire a better understanding of value structure of their own community and make every effort to develop educational goals or alternative programmes to recognize these values†. He went on to add that parent-Teacher Associations serves as a place where parents could get more information on how to deal with problems of their children. From the above, one may conclude that parent- Teacher Associations is to educate and make parents more informed about school activities thereby to create an avenue to change the attitudes of most parents against Western type of education which hithro has been negative, and also to instill in the minds of parents the quest for knowledge so as to have an enlightened society. In view of the above, the relevance of Parent Teacher Associations to schools could be seen in the material, financial and moral assistance given to school in various communities in the country as highlighted by the following national dailies; Nigerian standard, June 2, 1979 Daily Sketch, February 16, 1979, Sunday Punch, May 11, 1980 and Daily Times May 9, 1980 and so on. Durojaiye (1976) while analyzing the relevance of parent teacher associations stressed that teachers and parents have the most important influence during the critical period of child’s life. In Europe, especially in England and Wales, Parent-Teacher Association played a prominent role in the development of Education by reflecting the interest and welfare of schools and extra curricular activates. King (1979) stressed on the importance of parent Teachers Associations in British Education where it encourage all aspects of home and school cooperation through school association involving parents. Dubey et al (1979) has it that â€Å"parents exercised the strongest influence over the lives of their children in schools even when they go abroad for studies† According to the Parent Teacher Association president Unger of Scotch Plains, New Jersely, as cited by Omisore (1991) that â€Å" the association provided parents with the strongest voice they can have no children issues, adding that the National parent Teacher Association is the largest children advocacy associations in America†. It would be of relevance therefore for parents all to stand and speak with a single voice on matter affecting education of their children. They may become militant in demand for more recognition to participate actively in policy making organ of the ministry provided they are solidified and articulated. Parent-Teachers Association could as well be of use to assist governments in general and schools in particular to solve issues of students unrest and secret societies in the country’s institution of students unrest in Nigeria today is largely due to lack of proper home training and parental care for the moral well-being of the young ones. On a landscape, Parent-Teachers Association of tomorrow for the nation. Generally the periods between 1970s and the early parts of 1980s could be regarded as the period which marked the beginning in the establishment of parent teachers Association for various communities in the country. Parent Teacher Associations witnessed an unprecedented upsurge during the later part of 1980s in Federal Capital Territory due to a higher level of public enlightenment achieved with the contribution of the Agency for mass Education in the Federal Capital Territory. It is in view of the relevance of the Parent Teachers’ Association as one of the Doll went further in suggesting the following measures to be considered by principals: 1. Assess community needs. 2. Identify various community organizations that are engaged in educating citizens 3. Isolate areas of mutual interests to avoid duplication. 4. Initiate Joint efforts and actions between and among organization. 5. Establish a coordinating council that serves as a clearing house for service exchange. 6. Help the teachers prepare for Parent Teacher Associations conferences and make readily available information concerning its procedures. 7. Pin-point areas of contacts with the schools. 8. Initiate cooperative programmes between the Parent-Teacher Associations of other schools. As indicated somewhere else earlier in this chapter for any association to succeed, it must uphold the needs, aspirations and ideas of the community where it is rooted. Many social clubs have seriously embarked on organizing and education community members to become literate in the Federal Capital Territory. However, it must be stressed clearly that the activities of parent Teachers Associations and that of the old students Associations be stream-lined to avoid duplication of both human and material resources. There are Parent-Teacher Association’s councils at district level, local government towards coordinating parent-teacher association’s activates. A more realistic means of encouraging teachers to prepare actively for parent teachers association’s conferences is to make them to present papers during such occasions. This may likely instill a sense of recognition of its activities. Ukeje (1984) indicated clearly that initiative school principals are able to solve many disciplinary problems s among student and teachers bent on tarnishing the good image of the school by the assistance and involvement of the parent-teacher associations. . 8School and Community Relationship Education is the responsibility of the community, the state and the nation in general. Therefore, the formation of a Parent-Teacher Associations should cut, across the various sections of the society in order to achieve the maximum support and co-operation of all concerned. Musaazi (1982)-237) was of the view that the relationships between the school and the community are important to the all round growth and development of both pupils and adults. However, when uncertainties arise about the progress of their children or the school in general, their anxiety and indeed that of the community as a whole is usually freely expressed, and there can be no doubt about their concern. (Durojaiye 1976:27) expressly stated that there is â€Å"no disagreement among students of child development and students of education and the society that of all the agencies of the society which affect children, the home and the school exert the strongest and most pervasive influence†. In view of the assertion, it becomes imperative that the school and the community should be more closely related in matters affecting the education and welfare of the children. A most effective means is when student’s clubs, organizations and societies. Invite parents for example, the young farmers club to demonstrate modern farming techniques to the community. The school could as well serve as a vehicle in the promotion of the culture, music and history of the community through the curriculum with the view of the communal suspicion on Western type of education. Our modern educational system demands that, schools whether government owned, private or community should involve parents is the policy making body of the institution. It was observed that: The new idea of the democratic school system implies that citizens of a community have the responsibility not only to finance the schools, but also to participate in determining educational goals and objectives and in building curriculum that will truly meet the need of children and youth. It is the function of the home, school and the community to settle such problems together Leibermen (1960:112). The above quotation does not only suggest that active participation of the community in school activities. It categorically indicated that the condition between the school and community may centre around the curriculum. However, if communities are to be more functional in educational issues and also to play the roles expected of them in the management of education in Federal Capital Territory, therefore, communities should to some certain extent dictate what is to be taught because, schools are part of the community. But parent-Teacher Associations as a democratic organ representing the community is being marginalized and restricted from participating in policies by the ministry of education. While acknowledging the relationship between education and society, he fully commented that, the child may come to school ill-equipped for and hostile to learning under any educational regime, but for most part his educability depends as much as on the assumptions, values and aims personified in the teachers, and embodied in the school organization in to which he is supposed to assimilate himself, as those he brings with him from his home Wiseman (1971:168). One may observe that the teacher, the school, the child and his home are to make significant contributions towards child’s success in the school for the overall attainment of the national educational objective. The place of co-operation between the community and the school in any educational venture can not be over-emphasized. It is presumed that both homes and schools could effectively co-operate to tackle any problem(s) likely to arise, be it academic or otherwise. Schools, according to Tarrant (1981) should rise to integrate the child successfully in to his immediate community. This may not seem to be an easy task especially that schools were in the past isolated from their communities which they tend to serve. Traditionally, schools were often sited and built too far away from towns. In an attempt to correct this demanding trend, the concepts of ‘Ujma’a’ and ‘Herambeeism’ philosophies is suggested as practiced both in Tanzania and Kenya respectively so as to fully involve and the integrate the schools in to their communities. For communities to full accommodate schools, they should from now be involved in the administration and management of schools particularly in the Federal Capita Territory and all other facets of policy making to meet the needs of the people. The achievement recorded in Kenya and Tanzania in the fielf of Polytechnic Education is a drive towards self reliance and could be attributed to the level of communal involvement to develop their countries. However, in fostering an effective and sound school community relationship, is pertinent to make ourselves abreast with the community characteristics regarding its philosophy of education. It is for that reason that Bullock as cited in grant (1973) summaries such community knowledge by appraising the following questions:- 1. What is the general community level of approval of the school programme? 2. What kind of educational philosophy does the community hold? 3. What degree of prestige do teachers as an occupational class hold in the community? 4. What kind of community is this with regard to such characteristics as cohesiveness and unity of action? 5. How does the community define the role of the school administrations? . How receptive is the community to charge? From the above questions asked by Bultock, it could be asserted that the educational philosophy upheld by a particular community should have a bearing on the school curriculum. The educational content must therefore work towards the upliftment of the educational level of the general populace of the federal capital territory. This also accounts to why Islamic education and some aspects of commercial education dominated the western type of education in the sate. Similarly, one may as well add that parents accept school programmes readily, yet they need to have a say in the educational aspects affecting their children to demonstrate that they are receptive to charge and innovation it is sad to note that teachers were not highly respected most especially by the society. A possible reason could be because they are poorly paid. In additiona, cox et al (1961), Beck (1968) and Jamnala (1970) viewed school as a miniature society which must reflect the values and aspirations of their communities in all ramifications. They further maintained that the relationship between school and the community be reciprocal. This, however, when applied to education could mean that our educational systems be geared towards upholding our cherished values and ideals which are to be attained by the child (learner). For schools to do this effectively they need to establish a very sound rapport and understanding with their communities and such should from the base for parents participation in actual school administration and policy making. It is equally sad to note that there was not substantial input in to education by the community, hence there seemed to be little contact between them, thereby depriving the schools of their cultural foundation. 2. 9 Organization and Composition of Parent-Teachers’ Association The organization of a local Parent-Teacher Associations is very important as it will affect its success. However, the question that comes to mind is; who should hold membership in Parent-Teacher Association? In the light of the above, it was suggested that. The organization of a local parent-teachers’ association may be initiated by any one of several individuals or agencies. The most common are the school principal, the school staff, parents and some part or all of the school staff, the parent-teachers’ association council fro the area, and the board of education in terms of policy requiring the organization of such a parent-leaded group Hymes (1953). Schools are naturally dealing with the lives of pupils. Though membership in to the association is automatic and free to members of the society, care must be exercised while electing persons to hold responsibilities in the organization. Parent Teachers Association should consist of people of exemplary characters whose lives are centered towards serving humanity. Equally, such members must be honest, trustworthy and reliable. Afolayan (1982) seemed to be more accurate and precise on the organization and composition of parent-teachers’ associations. He opined that, normally members of association consist of teachers and the parents of the students in the school. Since membership is free and automatic for members (teachers in a given school). It could be regarded as unethical on the part of any professional teacher not to attend parent-teachers Associations meetings. Hymes (1953) while writing on the appropriate time parent-teacher association meetings suggested: 1. At the start of the school year during which school programmes can be relayed to the parents. 2. At the end of the school calendar year to give progress report on students’ achievements to the parents. These two suggestions by Hymes though reasonable, but are naive. Parent-Teacher Associations meetings may be convened by various secondary schools depending upon the needs and the circumstances surrounding the need to call such meeting. 2. 0 Review of Some Parent Teachers’ Associations Constitutions Organizations are government and guided by constitutions and standing orders to assist and give them a general sense of direction in the discharge of their functions. Constitutions governing the activities of Parent Teachers Association of some selected states were reviewed and contrasted against that of Federal Capitatl Territory. The ideal of comparing these constitutions was to find out if the constitutions governing parent-teacher associations in the Federal Capital Territory are adequate or otherwise. The Federal Capital Territory Ministry of Education provided a constitution which served as a framework for the effective functioning of Parent Teacher Associations in all the post primary schools. Under this document (see Appendix iii) the aims and objectives of the Parent Teacher Associations were spelt in article iii and it included. a. To provide the platform for parents, guardians, sponsors and teachers of students of Nigeria primary, secondary, and tertiary Educational Institutions to meet, exchange views, deeply analyze issues, make recommendations, take and effectively pursue. Implementation of decisions on matters affecting education in Nigeria with the appropriate agencies. b. To co-operate with and support morally and financially the Federal, State and Local governments, Ministries, Boards, commissions, and all other appropriate organization institutions and establishments of education to achieve high standards of academic performance discipline, morality, service and integrity in our schools. c. To provide a forum for both parents and teachers to hold useful discussions on matters affecting school, students and staff with a view to ensuring a conducive atmosphere for effective teaching – learning and peaceful co-existence in the school. d. To help in any way possible to supplement government efforts in the provision of facilities that helps the school in the discharge of its basic functions and encourages both staff and students in the pursuit of knowledge. e. To bring closer union between parents and teachers of the school. The above aims and objectives of parent-teacher associations when contrasted with those provided by primary schools management board in establishing parent-teacher associations in all its primary schools, it appeared that the aims and objectives provided by the mother ministry of education in running and establishing similar associations proved inadequate. Parent-Teacher Associations should encourage and involve parents to take keep interest in the education of their children as outlined in the guidelines on the establishment and running of parent teacher associations in primary schools. It is important to involve parents to take â€Å"keen interest† in the education of their children government policies on education may not be realized in view of the enormous cost being incurred by government in the management of secondary schools in the Federal Capital Territory. However, in a similar vain, the draft governing constitution and standing orders of the National Parent Teachers’ Association of Nigeria (National PTA) is more comprehensive, detailed and informative. This may be so because everything national should have a broader base to accommodate the numerous diversity of It is also important for both parents and educators to have a clearly defined area of operation in school management to achieve results. Teachers need the educational understanding of the parents, and parents too need the social understanding of teachers in realizing the educational objectives and welfare of the children. There are four tiers of Parent Teacher Association administration and operational hierarchy in Nigeria. They include: 1. Schools of institutional parents Teacher Association. Every School or educational institution in every state and the mayoralty of the Federal Capital Territory of the Federal Teacher Association consisting of parents, guardians, sponsors and teacher of the pupils/students registered therein. 2. Central Parent Teacher Association (CPTA). The chairman and Treasurers of PTAS plus and Academic heads of schools and educational institutions in each local government education District shall constitute the parent Teacher Association at the local Government Education District level. The Local Administrator of Education and such other Educational agencies shall be represented in all their meetings but shall have no voting right. 3. State Parent Teacher Association of the local Government Education Districts throughout each state shall constitute the State Parent Teacher Association of the state. 4. National parent Teacher Association of Nigeria. All State parent Teacher Association Chairman, Treasurers and General Secretaries plus not more than five observers from each State except the hasting state which may exceed five observers to receive the delegates, shall constitute the National body. The Federal Ministry of Education and other relevant educational agencies shall be represented without voting rights. Parent Teacher’s Association (P. T. A. ) saw education as the key to human development and both parents and teachers were determined to send their children, wards or relatives to schools at any cost. Therefore, the role of P. T. A. of those days under the umbrella of Nigerian indigenous mission members. 5. That Parent-Teacher Association functions are not identified in relationship with the development of secondary education in the Federal Capital Territory. . Parents have adequate perception of their role in the activity of parent Teacher Association. 7. Parent Teacher Association members may not be aware of other more important functions of the associations. ? CHAPTER THREE 3. 0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 3. 1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher takes a look at the research design, the population of the study and the sampling procedures. This chapte r also covers the instrumentation, method of data collection and method of statistical analysis. 3. 2 Research Design The research design used in this study is a descriptive survey because the concern of the researcher is to determine the role of the Parent Teacher Association in the management of primary schools. According to Awotunde Ugodulunwa (2004), the concern of descriptive research is not why the observed distribution exist but what the distribution is. 3. 3 Population of the Study The population for this study includes the administrator, the teacher and parent population of primary schools in Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory. This population is estimated at 10,000. 3. 4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique A total number of 240 respondents were used for the study distributed among five primary schools in the area council. They were randomly selected for the study. This sample size was distributed between teachers, administrators and parents on the basis of the ratio 3:1:1. 3. 5 Instrumentation A self-developed questionnaire was used to gather the data for this study. The questionnaire is very potent because it affords the researcher the opportunity to establish some rapport with the respondents. The questionnaire was designed along a four-point likert scale to elicit the response of in terms of Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The questionnaire was divided into two major sections. Section one contain request for respondent’s biodata while section 2 which is further subdivided on the basis of the research questions asked is targeted towards eliciting the views of respondents on the role performed by PTA in the development of primary schools. 3. 6 Validity of the Instrument The face and content validity was carried out by the project supervisor in the Faculty of Education of the University of Abuja was consulted to vet and correct some items that might be vague and ambiguous. 3. 7Reliability of the Instrument Pilot study was carried out to determine the reliability of the instrument. Twenty (20) members of the main population for the pilot study but such sample schools will not participate in the main study. Analysis of the response from the pilot study was carried out by using the split-half method of determining reliability indices. A simple correlation of the odd and even responses provided the reliability index of 0. 84. This provides evidence of the reliability of the instrument. 3. 8 Method Data Collection The questionnaire will be administered by the researcher with the aid of two research assistants. All completed questionnaires will be collected on the spot. The responses will be scored as stated below: Strongly Agree -4 Agree-3 Disagree-2 Strongly Disagree-1 3. 9 Method of Data Analysis Descriptive statistics will be used in the analysis of data gathered using the questionnaire. This statistics include simple percentages and frequencies. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION 4. 1. Introduction In this chapter, all secondary and primary data collected were analyzed using percentages and frequency counts, result are being presented and findings discussed. The data collected from the teachers and parents have been preserved. 4. 2. Demographic Data Table 4. 1: Distribution of Respo ndents According to Gender GenderFrequencyPercentage (%) Male16766. 8 Female8333. 2 Total250100 The table above shows the number of male and female respondents. Male respondent totaled 167 representing 66. % while female respondents totaled 83 representing 33. 2% respectively. Table 4. 2 Distribution of Respondents among Administrators, Teachers and Parents CategoryFrequencyPercentage (%) Admin156. 0 Teachers7329. 2 Parents16264. 8 Total250100 The table above clearly showed that more respondents were parents; for instance, one hundred and sixty two (162) parents representing 64. 8% of the sample were parents while the respondents from the teacher is seventy three 73 representing 29. 2% and below the cadre the administrator with respondents of only 15 representing 6. 9%.

A Summary of MLA Sample Essays

A Summary of MLA Sample EssaysAn MLA (Methodological Leapfrog) Sample Essay, as its name implies, is a sample essay that was drafted to provide a jumping off point for students, the author of the essay usually being a professional writer. All authors who write essays for the purposes of obtaining university admissions or certification in writing write these samples.There are quite a few guidelines on how to write an essay, most of which are not present in MLA Sample Essays. The purpose of these samples is to help the author see the steps they need to take when composing an essay on an academic topic, and thus they can be of immense help to them. These samples do not act as the sole guide for writing a good academic essay, and most often than not, they are offered without any editorial control.Like any other sample essay, the MCLA Sample Essay does not have to be perfect. The only stipulation being that it should accurately convey the information required for the sample. If there is a ny information or concept that is unclear, a substitute is encouraged, with the substitution receiving full credit for any grammatical or spelling errors. If you find yourself missing something or perhaps something is clear for the reader, then do your best to address the issue by providing relevant alternatives to what is being described.MCLA (Methodological Leapfrog) Sample Essays are not an academic project written by a professor but rather just a practice exam, one that is used to determine if the author is capable of writing an academic paper of high quality. Most importantly, the essay should clearly and concisely give the information requested from it. In this way, the reader can easily understand what is required to carry out the research and write the final document.Depending on the nature of the business or course that the student will be enrolled in, one can choose among several sample essays from which the student selects one. This is done either on the student's own or with the assistance of an MLA (Methodological Leapfrog) consultant, whose objective is to get all students enrolled in the appropriate course or program. For this reason, it is important that the student select the correct essay for the purpose of study so that no compromise of quality is made in the process.MCLA (Methodological Leapfrog) Sample Essays are not required to be exactly as they are described, but can be adapted to suit the purpose for which they were written. This is usually done in the same way that the student arranges for the thesis statement or the introduction of the paper. With enough preparation and the use of quotations, the essay can become a better product.The MCLA (Methodological Leapfrog) Sample Essay may be placed online for a student to download for an entire year. This allows students to write an essay anywhere and whenever they please. It is considered a way of getting ahead and by doing so, it not only helps the student to further their education but al so helps their grades.These Sample Essays can be downloaded free of charge through the MLA website. If a student uses this as a supplement to their studies, the student can obtain an academic credential, certified in writing. This is an additional benefit and a perk offered by the MLA, making the material even more valuable to the student.

Ode on Melancholy Essay Example

Ode on Melancholy Paper Keats gains inspiration from many sources, the most important of which is the natural world. Explore the varied poetic uses Keats makes of nature in the Ode on Melancholy and Ode to Autumn Keats refers to nature in many of his poems. The natural world and the human world are inspiring to him and he portrays both these ideas in the poem Ode on Melancholy. He describes nature and its beauty through descriptive language in this ode. In this ode nature present the joys in life as well its melancholic ways. Keats uses themes of mutability, nature and its course and synaesthesia. These inspirations Keats uses enable him to be a universally renowned poet as the themes give his poems individuality. Keats wrote during the Romantic period and observations and description of the natural world were very typical of writers in the period. Nature is shown in several forms throughout Ode on Melancholy and Ode to Autumn as Keats learns to accept the truth of life and all of its qualities and nature helps discover and highlight this. Ode to Melancholy begins with the descriptions of nature through the idea of suffering. Negative images are displayed, No, no telling you not to reject melancholy but learn to accept it. Poisonous plants are mentioned showing the idea of suicide, wolfs-bane and its poisonous wine suggests death and sickness through imagery of colour and the idea of pain. The first stanza urges you not to try and escape pain but to learn from it. Poison is referred to again in the final stanza in order to show Keats connection with the natural world. He refers to a bee sipping nectar, a very common and in fact pleasurable thing for a bee yet it is vastly turning into poison. We will write a custom essay sample on Ode on Melancholy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ode on Melancholy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ode on Melancholy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This use of synaesthesia of the bee-mouth is able to show how quickly joy and pleasure can turn into melancholy. Sometimes there are no warning signs. It is precisely the fact that joy will come to an end that makes the experience of joy such a ravishing one; the fact that beauty dies makes the experience of beauty sharper and more thrilling. However, there are many contrasts as beauty is represented but also taken away by melancholic imagery. Like a weeping cloud is a very significant simile as nature is represented negatively although it is a common action, rain. However, weeping represents the idea of sadness and grief. Rain is not generally a negative aspect of nature. The contrast to the weeping cloud is made when this rain is able to foster the droop-headed flowers showing melancholy is also nourishing like the rain which revives the drooping flowers. Here Keats has built up an extended metaphor. The rain is very significant as it also hides the green hill showing melancholy to cover up natures finer aspects. The colour imagery of green suggests fertility, beauty and aliveness; this is the contrast of joy and melancholy. Rain and sadness are able to hide natures beauties. This contrast is almost made in April shroud which has oxymoronic ideas as April is the month of natures renewal, a pleasant setting and shroud is a cloth used for death. This portrays the idea of the mutability of life. Sadness needs to be accepted in order to enjoy lifes pleasures. Nature is a source of melancholy and like some aspects of nature, such as rainbows and waves, melancholy is not always long lasting. It is meant to be temporary, as life has many emotions through the human world as well as the natural world. Ode on Melancholy Essay Example Ode on Melancholy Paper The differences highlighted between Ode to a nightingale and To Autumn is, their way of accepting is based on different concepts. To Autumn does so in a positive way whilst Ode to a Nightingale does not. To Autumn can be related to Ode on Melancholy; their ideas on life are similar. Ode on Melancholys theme is based on the idea that melancholy cannot be felt without feeling joy. Keats presents this through the view of Joy being unable to feel melancholy, save him whose strenuous tongue / Can burst Joys grape against his palate fine. The grape metaphorically presents the feeling of happiness and that it needs to burst and be fully tasted in order for melancholy to be completely felt or understood. To Autumn is similar in the sense that Keats understands that life and death come with each other, you cannot experience spring without experiencing the robin red breast in winter. To Autumn also makes the distinction between life and death and how they cannot be without each other when he says full-grown lamb. Lamb presents new birth and the idea of a full life ahead, whereas full-grown presents old and near death. We will write a custom essay sample on Ode on Melancholy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ode on Melancholy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ode on Melancholy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer By Keats putting the two together he is suggesting that death cannot occur without life. Both Ode on Melancholy and To Autumn express the inability to have something without the other. There is however a distinct difference in the language used in both poems. Ode on Melancholy is very negative and filled with negative images whilst To Autumn is more positively generated and filled with positive descriptions. Throughout Ode on Melancholy Keats uses negative emotions, images and ideas. Such as Sorrows mysteries and drown. Sorrow presents depression, sadness and grief which promote a negative impression to the reader. Also the use of sibilance in Sorrows mysteries, also contributes to the negative feel as it creates an eerie and sinister atmosphere. Drown is particularly violent image of death creating fears and worry. This aura is created throughout the poem, other words such as weeping, droop-headed flowers and rich anger are also used. Weeping again creates sadness and a feeling of distress. Droop-headed flowers takes the negative imagery to a natural level droop-headed is the stance of a dead flower through which Keats is using death images on nature, whilst also creating an idea of the flower drooping its head in sadness. To Autumn on the other hand is filled with positive imagery and ideas such as, fruitfullness and ripeness. This gives the idea of fertility and birth, which are considered beautiful images as it is the impression of new life and the start of living. Again Keats continues this positivism through the poem, through words such as sound asleep, patient look and drowsed, these also creates positive images. Being sound asleep creates connotations of being relaxed and in a place of calm and serenity. Patient look creates the same type of aura, that life is calm and simple; full of neither patience not worry nor distress. It is clear that Ode on Melancholy is very negative and To Autumn is particularly positive in its presentation what also makes them similar is that Keats has created an image and run it through the entire poem without change but a continuous feel of the same emotion be it negative or positive. The way in which To Autumn stands out from the other odes is its outlook on life and death, and its ability to fully accept both from the offset. The other odes however have a begrudging ability to accept anything. To autumn is the only of the poems which does not have ten lines in its stanzas, it is as if the eleventh line is that extra bit of understanding and positivism, the extra space to be able to accept death. To Autumn is a far more inspirational and beautifully positive poem creating a placid, relaxed and loving view whilst the others tend to make us, the reader, feel down and miserable as they have a much more pessimistic view on life. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE John Keats section.

Do the Right THing Essays

Do the Right THing Essays Do the Right THing Paper Do the Right THing Paper As the hyped up base line begins to play the opening credits begin to role. From the up-tempo opening to DJ Senor Love ending the movie telling everyone to chill we are taken on a music induced journey through a day on the Bedford-Stuyvesant block in Brooklyn New York. In a movie drenched with controversy, Spike Lee often uses music to induce conflict. However, at the same time his musical techniques cover up the building conflict and make the film feel almost like an up-tempo, hip-hop musical. The musical flow ends as soon as Sal takes the bat to Radio Raheems radio. The dramatic conclusion to the movie is very uncomfortable and shocking partly due to Spike Lees use of music throughout the film. Wake up, wake up, wake up! shouts Deejay Senor Love Daddy, as we see an extreme close-up of his lips, the microphone, and an alarm clock. Senor Lovesfirst words give an insight into the message which Lee tries to convey. Furthermore, the presence of a Deejay from t he onset allows music to be a device to generate an effective flow throughout the movie. Bill Lee, the father of Spike, provides an easygoing jazz background that works well as we are introduced to characters on the block. The periodic use of reggae also has the same effect.Public Enemy provides music during periods of conflict in the movie. The use of music makes the audience almost overlook the growing tension on the block. There is conflict in almost every scene. Often the conflict is abundantly clear and often it is very subtle. For instance, Buggin Out picks a fight with a man in a Larry Bird jersey and brings along his friend in a Magic Johnson jersey to help in his fight. Conflict, subtle or not, is everywhere yet the audience falls into the smooth flow of the movie. Midway through the movie Deejay Love comes back to give a roll call and a salute to black artists. The roll call comes across with a

Typical developmental pathways of Speech Language and Communication Essay

Typical developmental pathways of Speech Language and Communication - Essay Example The developmental pathways of speech, communication, and language start from when the child is about three months to when he or she is about three years, that is thirty-six months. By this age, the child has developed the basic skills and can communicate and understand some words. During the development of these three skills, in case a certain developmental concern is observed, intervention is critical. This is because it is easier to resolve problems related to these skills at early ages, however if the concerns are left untreated, the child may suffer from language, and speech impairments that affect the childs ability to use language learned later. It also affects how they learn new things, and how they behave in their later childhood and adolescence The pathways to child development are in ten groups from when the child is three months to when he or she is thirty-six months. In the third month the child should be able to, maintain eye contact, coo, goo, and smile, and cry differently for different needs, for example, when tired or hungry.in the third to sixth month the child is able to smile and quiet when spoken to. From six to nine months, the child should begin bubbling, express feelings and vocalizes to gain attention, the child should also be able to turn the head in order to follow sound and notice toys. The third stage of typical developmental pathways falls from nine to twelve months, at this stage the child can consistently respond to the own name when called, looks at familiar people and objects when mentioned. At this stage, the child can also follow routine commands associated with gestures, from twelve to fifteen months the child imitates speech sounds and understands up to fifty words. From fifteen month to the twenty-fourth months, the child shows improved skills in speech language and communication. From the twenty-fourth month onwards the child

Micromint micropayment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Micromint micropayment - Essay Example The scrip ensures there is a permanent relationship between the customer and the vendor. This according to Rivest (1997, p. 45), is inconvenience for a vendor. To perform each transaction, the consumer goes to the broker for exchange of the vendor scrip. In spite of the security features of Millicent System; it is still exposed to cyber crimes. Future systems ought to be improved using public keys for encryption. This can protect sensitive information from reaching intruders. Additionally, network security techniques ought to be applied to eliminate the risk of man-in-the-middle attack. Glassman, S., Manasse, M., Abadi, M., Gauthier, P & Sobalvarro, P 2013, â€Å"The MilliCent Protocol for Inexpensive Electronic Commerce†, Fourth International World Wide Web Conference, Darmstadt, Germany. Rivest, R 1997, â€Å"Electronic Lottery Tickets as Micropayments†, in R. Hirschfeld (Ed.), Financial Crypography: First International Conference (FC ‘97), Anguilla, British West Indies, Feb. 24-28, Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 1318, pp. 307-314). Yacobi, Y 1997, â€Å"On the Continuum Between On-line and Off-line E-cash Systems†, in R. Hirschfeld (Ed.), Financial Cryptography: First International Conference (FC ’97), Anguilla, British West Indies, February 24-28, Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 1318, pp.